Cultivos Tropicales Vol. 43, No. 2, abril-junio 2022, ISSN: 1819-4087
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Cu-ID: https://cu-id.com/2050/v43n2e14
Reseña

Enriquecimiento fosfórico del suelo y su Impacto ambiental

 

iDAdriano Cabrera-Rodríguez1Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Agrícolas (INCA), carretera San José-Tapaste, km 3½, Gaveta Postal 1, San José de las Lajas, Mayabeque, Cuba. CP 32700.*✉:naniadriano1950@gmail.com

iDRosmery Cruz-Camacho2Instituto de Investigaciones del Tabaco, carretera Tumbadero, km 8½, San Antonio de los Baños, Artemisa, Cuba.


1Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Agrícolas (INCA), carretera San José-Tapaste, km 3½, Gaveta Postal 1, San José de las Lajas, Mayabeque, Cuba. CP 32700.

2Instituto de Investigaciones del Tabaco, carretera Tumbadero, km 8½, San Antonio de los Baños, Artemisa, Cuba.

 

*Autor para correspondencia: naniadriano1950@gmail.com

Resumen

El P es uno de los tres macronutrientes primarios requerido para el crecimiento de las plantas y los animales. Su aplicación excesiva en los agrosistemas ha generado suelos enriquecidos con P en muchas latitudes. La revisión que se presenta tiene como objetivo realizar una valoración abreviada sobre el significado de suelo enriquecido con P y las afectaciones ambientales que ello provoca. Cuando el balance entre el P aplicado menos el exportado resulta positivo, se incrementa el P asimilable y se produce una acumulación de P en el suelo, que con el transcurso de los años origina el enriquecimiento en P de los suelos. El P participa en la eutrofización de los cuerpos de agua, lo que se agudiza cuando el suelo está enriquecido con P. En un suelo enriquecido con P se incrementa el pH, disminuye el contenido de materia orgánica, se descompone la caolinita, se afecta la nutrición de las plantas por efectos de antagonismo y se inhibe el funcionamiento micorrízico.

Palabras clave: 
fósforo, fósforo en suelo, eutrofización, fertilidad del suelo

Recibido: 22/6/2021; Aceptado: 18/9/2021

CONTENIDO

Introducción

 

El P es uno de los tres macronutrientes primarios requerido para el crecimiento de las plantas y los animales; su aplicación es necesaria para mantener la producción y la rentabilidad de los cultivos, así como la producción animal (11. Sharpley AN, Daniel T, Sims T, Lemunyon J, Stevens R, Parry R. Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophication [Internet]. Second Edition. U.S: Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; 2003. Available from: https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/26693/PDF ).

Debido a las aplicaciones fosfóricas durante años con fertilizantes minerales, con fertilizantes orgánicos o con ambos, en ocasiones de manera irracional (22. Lee GF. Role of phosphorus in eutrophication and diffuse source control. In: Phosphorus in Fresh Water and the Marine Environment [Internet]. Elsevier; 1973. p. 111-28. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080176970500134 ), se han alcanzado concentraciones elevadas de P en muchos suelos agrícolas de diferentes latitudes.

Suelos con concentraciones muy altas de P se han encontrado en Maryland, USA (33. Delorme TA, Angle JS, Coale FJ, Chaney RL. Phytoremediation of phosphorus-enriched soils. International Journal of phytoremediation [Internet]. 2000;2(2):173-81. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15226510008500038 ), en Holanda (44. Reijneveld JA, Ehlert PAI, Termorshuizen AJ, Oenema O. Changes in the soil phosphorus status of agricultural land in the Netherlands during the 20th century. Soil use and management [Internet]. 2010;26(4):399-411. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.14752743.2010.00290.x ,55. Van Middelkoop JC, Van der Salm C, Ehlert PAI, De Boer IJM, Oenema O. Does balanced phosphorus fertilisation sustain high herbage yields and phosphorus contents in alternately grazed and mown pastures? Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems [Internet]. 2016;106(1):93-111. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10705-016-9791-0 ), en otros países de la Unión Europea (66. Tóth G, Guicharnaud R-A, Tóth B, Hermann T. Phosphorus levels in croplands of the European Union with implications for P fertilizer use. European Journal of Agronomy [Internet]. 2014;55:42-52. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1161030113001950 ), en China (77. Li M, Hu Z, Zhu X, Zhou G. Risk of phosphorus leaching from phosphorus-enriched soils in the Dianchi catchment, Southwestern China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research [Internet]. 2015;22(11):8460-70. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11356-014-4008z ), lo que se ha atribuido a que el aporte del nutriente ha sido mayor que la remoción realizada por el producto cosechado (11. Sharpley AN, Daniel T, Sims T, Lemunyon J, Stevens R, Parry R. Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophication [Internet]. Second Edition. U.S: Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; 2003. Available from: https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/26693/PDF ,88. Sharpley AN, Chapra SC, Wedepohl R, Sims JT, Daniel TC, Reddy KR. Managing agricultural phosphorus for protection of surface waters: Issues and options. 1994; Available from: https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/54 ,99. MacDonald GK, Bennett EM, Potter PA, Ramankutty N. Agronomic phosphorus imbalances across the world’s croplands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [Internet]. 2011;108(7):3086-91. Available from: https://www.pnas.org/content/108/7/3086.short ).

Basado en lo expresado con anterioridad, la revisión que se presenta tiene como objetivo realizar una valoración abreviada sobre el significado de suelo enriquecido con P y las afectaciones ambientales que ello provoca.

Enriquecimiento fosfórico del suelo

 

Cuando en un área agrícola el balance entre el P aplicado menos el extraído por el producto cosechado (exportado) resulta positivo, se va incrementando la disponibilidad fosfórica del suelo (P asimilable) y a su vez, se va produciendo una acumulación de P en el suelo (residualidad), que con el decursar de los años origina el enriquecimiento fosfórico del medio edáfico (1010. Daniel TC, Sharpley AN, Lemunyon JL. Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophication: A symposium overview. 1998; Available from: https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/20276 -1515. Hirte J, Richner W, Orth B, Liebisch F, Flisch R. Yield response to soil test phosphorus in Switzerland: Pedoclimatic drivers of critical concentrations for optimal crop yields using multilevel modelling. Science of The Total Environment [Internet]. 2021;755:143453. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720369849 ); es decir, el suelo llega a convertirse en lo que se denomina un “suelo enriquecido con P”; en estos casos, el P asimilable supera al valor considerado como óptimo para los cultivos y estos no responden ante la fertilización fosfórica.

La disponibilidad de P para los cultivos se determina, de manera general, a partir de los resultados obtenidos mediante i) el análisis de suelo, ii) el análisis de la planta o de un tejido indicador de la planta, iii) el balance entre el P aplicado y el exportado por el producto cosechado.

El análisis de suelo brinda información sobre la disponibilidad de P para las plantas (1616. Cabrera A, Arzuaga J, Mojena M. Desbalance nutrimental del suelo y efecto sobre el rendimiento de tomate (Lycopersicon solanum L.) y pepino (Cucumis sativus L.) en condiciones de cultivo protegido. Cultivos Tropicales [Internet]. 2007;28(3):91-7. Available from: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/1932/193215844015.pdf -1919. Buczko U, van Laak M, Eichler-Löbermann B, Gans W, Merbach I, Panten K, et al. Re-evaluation of the yield response to phosphorus fertilization based on meta-analyses of long-term field experiments. Ambio [Internet]. 2018;47(1):50-61. Available from: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13280-017-0971-1.pdf ); mientras que el análisis de un tejido indicador de la planta (generalmente hojas o parte de ellas), aporta información sobre el estado nutricional del cultivo (33. Delorme TA, Angle JS, Coale FJ, Chaney RL. Phytoremediation of phosphorus-enriched soils. International Journal of phytoremediation [Internet]. 2000;2(2):173-81. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15226510008500038 ,2020. Gagnon B, Ziadi N. Papermill biosolids and alkaline residuals affect crop yield and soil properties over nine years of continuous application. Canadian Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 2012;92(6):917-30. Available from: https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/full/10.4141/cjss2012-026 ,2121. Almeida FM de, Noval WT la, Cabrera-Rodríguez JA, Arzuaga-Sánchez J. Crecimiento de plantas de papa (Solanum tuberosum L. cv Romano), en la provincia de Huambo, Angola, bajo dos densidades de plantación. Cultivos Tropicales [Internet]. 2018;39(3):31-40. Available from: http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?pid=S0258-59362018000300005&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt ). Ambos métodos son válidos y la precisión en la recomendación del nutriente se incrementa si se llevan a cabo los dos análisis.

Por su parte, el método del balance constituye una manera de restituir al suelo lo que se exporta del campo con el producto cosechado, pero para ello se tiene que utilizar el análisis químico de lo cosechado, como pueden ser la planta completa o parte de ella (2222. Cañizares PJG. Manejo efectivo de la simbiosis micorrízica arbuscular vía inoculación y la fertilización mineral en pastos del género Brachiaria [Internet]. Editorial Universitaria; 2014. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.27770.95685 ,2323. Espinosa CA. Factibilidad y beneficios de la inoculación micorrízica arbuscular en la producción de boniato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) [Doctorado]. Universidad Agraria de la Habana, Mayabeque, Cuba; 2021. 100 p.).

Los resultados que se obtienen a partir del análisis foliar o del suelo, se comparan con categorizaciones ya establecidas y se precisa el estado nutricional de la planta o la concentración de P asimilable del suelo. En la Tabla 1 se ejemplifica con análisis de suelo utilizando los métodos de determinación de P asimilable Bray and Kurtz No.1 (2424. Bray RH, Kurtz LT. Determination of total, organic, and available forms of phosphorus in soils. Soil science [Internet]. 1945;59(1):39-46. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1945/01000/Determination_of_Total,_Organic,_and_Available.6.aspx ), Olsen (2525. Olsen SR. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate [Internet]. US Department of Agriculture; 1954. Available from: https://books.google.es/books?hl=es&lr=&id=doaM88x5agC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=Estimation+of+available+phosphorus+in+soils+by+extraction+with+sodium+bicarbonate&ots=zZYnTFkPTC&sig=Y_pfYNmPPs86TM41Udnz_PrC4dg#v=onepage&q=Estimation%20of%20available%20phosphorus%20in%20soils%20by%20extraction%20with%20sodium%20bicarbonate&f=false ,2626. Reid K, Schneider K, Joosse P. Addressing imbalances in phosphorus accumulation in Canadian agricultural soils. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2019;48(5):1156-66. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2134/jeq2019.05.0205 ), Mehlich 3 (2626. Reid K, Schneider K, Joosse P. Addressing imbalances in phosphorus accumulation in Canadian agricultural soils. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2019;48(5):1156-66. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2134/jeq2019.05.0205 ,2727. Mehlich A. Mehlich 3 soil test extractant: A modification of Mehlich 2 extractant. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis [Internet]. 1984 [cited 8/12/2021];15(12):1409-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103628409367568 ) y Oniani (2828. Oficina Nacional de Normalización. NORMA CUBANA NC 52. Calidad del suelo. Análisis químico. Determinación de las formas móviles de fósforo y potasio. 1999.).

Tabla 1.  Categorización de P asimilable del suelo determinado por diferentes métodos.
Solución extractiva Categoría P (mg kg-1)
0,03 M NH4F+0,025 M HCl pH 3,5 Bray and Kurtz No. 1
Muy Bajo < 3
Bajo 3-7
Medio 7-20
Adecuado > 20
0,5 M NaHCO3 pH 8,5 Olsen
Bajo < 5
Medio 5-10
Adecuado > 10
Bajo < 10
Optimo 10-30
Alto 30-60
Muy Alto > 60
0,2 M CH3COOH+ 0,25 M NH4NO3 + 0,015 M NH4F + 0,013 M HNO3 + 0,001 M EDTA Mehlich 3
Bajo < 15
Óptimo 15-50
Alto 50-100
Muy Alto > 100
Nivel crítico 30
0,05 M H2SO4 Oniani (mg 100 g -1 , P 2 O 5 )
Bajo < 15
Medio 15-30
Alto 30-45
Muy Alto > 45

Esas categorizaciones en la mayoría de los casos se encuentran referidas como Bajo, Medio, Alto y Muy Alto, también como Muy Bajo, Bajo, Medio, Alto y Muy Alto, o como Muy Deficiente, Deficiente, Medio, Abastecido, Muy Abastecido, entre otras modalidades; en fin, es variable y dependiente de la técnica analítica empleada, de las consideraciones del investigador, de las condiciones edafoclimáticas, de la especie vegetal y del manejo.

En muchas ocasiones para el caso del análisis del suelo, se consideran otras propiedades para precisar aún más la categoría del P asimilable que corresponda, como pueden ser el pH, la textura, el contenido de materia orgánica, la capacidad de intercambio catiónico, entre otras. Para el caso del análisis de planta con frecuencia se considera el porcentaje de humedad de la muestra analizada y la edad de la planta al momento del muestreo. Las categorías definidas tanto para la fertilidad fosfórica del suelo como para el estado nutricional de las plantas, están asociadas a dosis de fertilizantes a aplicar, de donde se selecciona aquella que corresponda a cada condición específica.

A partir de la diferencia entre el P aplicado y el exportado por la cosecha (método del balance), se pretende mantener un estado de fertilidad fosfórica del suelo estable en el tiempo (balance igual a “cero”), siempre que esa fertilidad se considere adecuada (Categoría Medio o Alto).

El método del balance permite incrementar la fertilidad fosfórica en suelos con P asimilable insuficiente (Bajo o Muy Bajo) aplicando más P del que se exporta del campo (“balance positivo”), hasta llevarlo a un estado óptimo de concentración de P asimilable.

Un “balance negativo” es apropiado para disminuir la concentración de P asimilable en suelos enriquecidos con P (Muy Alto), eliminando la aplicación del nutriente hasta tanto el análisis de suelo indique que la categoría fosfórica del suelo haya descendido a un nivel adecuado, momento a partir del cual se tratará de mantener un balance igual a “cero”.

Todo pareciera indicar que existe garantía de que en un agrosistema se aplique al suelo la cantidad de P requerida para el cultivo; sin embargo y desafortunadamente, esto no ha sido así, diversos aspectos han conllevado al enriquecimiento fosfórico del suelo.

Una cuestión muy común en la práctica agrícola, lo constituye el hecho de que al productor le satisface aplicar más nutriente que el recomendado, sin valorar también el impacto económico negativo que tiene esta práctica. Puede mencionarse también el hecho de aplicar fertilizante fosfórico químico o alguna enmienda con contenido de P apreciable y además, fertilizante orgánico. Esto es un comportamiento que se ha practicado por años en áreas ganaderas, sobre todo en países desarrollados (2929. Sharpley AN, McDowell RW, Kleinman PJ. Phosphorus loss from land to water: integrating agricultural and environmental management. Plant and soil [Internet]. 2001;237(2):287-307. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1013335814593 ), donde las excretas del ganado son llevadas e incorporadas a los campos, pero casi siempre son los mismos campos los que reciben este tratamiento, ya que el traslado de excretas desde su origen a áreas alejadas de esta, encarece en demasía el proceso productivo. Otra cuestión que merece mencionarse está relacionada con la utilización de fórmulas de fertilizantes para el uso en la agricultura, con las que resulta complejo garantizar la dosis de alguno de los nutrientes sin exceder las necesidades de otro y casi siempre es el P el que se sobreestima. Algunas fórmulas utilizadas en la agricultura son:

10-10-10 17-17-17
12-12-12 21-7-14
15-15-15 9-13-17

Otra forma de aportar P al horizonte cultivable del suelo es mediante la acumulación biogénica o reciclaje del nutriente, el que se produce mediante la incorporación de raíces, las hojas senescentes, ramas, flores, frutos y los residuos de cosecha, que aportan en superficie parte del P que la planta extrae de los horizontes más profundos.

Impacto ambiental del enriquecimiento fosfórico del suelo

 

Efecto sobre fuentes de agua: Eutrofización

 

La eutrofización es definida de forma simple, como el sobre enriquecimiento con nutrientes de ecosistemas acuáticos que conlleva al crecimiento de las algas y a eventos anóxicos (22. Lee GF. Role of phosphorus in eutrophication and diffuse source control. In: Phosphorus in Fresh Water and the Marine Environment [Internet]. Elsevier; 1973. p. 111-28. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080176970500134 ,3030. Carpenter SR. Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: bistability and soil phosphorus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [Internet]. 2005;102(29):10002-5. Available from: https://www.pnas.org/content/102/29/10002.short ) o como el proceso de enriquecimiento orgánico o productividad biológica de un cuerpo de agua, acelerado por mayores aportes de nutrientes (3131. Sharpley A, Tunney H. Phosphorus research strategies to meet agricultural and environmental challenges of the 21st century. 2000; Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900010022x ).

En respuesta al sobre enriquecimiento con nutrientes, el fitoplancton se modifica hacia una proliferación molesta de algas, que al descomponerse producen un olor fétido y provoca la disminución de oxígeno provocando la muerte de los peces (1111. Bennett EM, Carpenter SR, Caraco NF. Human impact on erodable phosphorus and eutrophication: a global perspective: increasing accumulation of phosphorus in soil threatens rivers, lakes, and coastal oceans with eutrophication. BioScience [Internet]. 2001;51(3):227-34. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/51/3/227/256199?login=true ).

Otros problemas asociados con la eutrofización son la presencia de toxinas en el agua, pérdida de transparencia del agua y disminución de la luz que llega en profundidad, mal sabor del agua potable, desaparición de las plantas nativas y pérdida de la biodiversidad (3232. Fernández-Marcos ML. Contaminación por fósforo procedente de la fertilización orgánica de suelos agrícolas. Gestión de residuos orgánicos de uso agrícola, no. May [Internet]. 2011;25-31. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lugo-Ibader/publication/338544738_Lopez_Mosquera_ME_Sainz_Oses_MJ_Coords_2011_Guia_de_residuos_organicos_de_uso_agricola_Santiago_de_Compostela_Servizo_de_Publicacions_Universidade_de_Santiago_de_Compostela/links/5e1b81ae4585159aa4cb51ec/Lopez-Mosquera-ME-Sainz-Oses-MJ-Coords-2011_Guia_de_residuos_organicos_de_uso_agricola_Santiago_de_Compostela_Servizo_de_Publicacions_Universidade_de_Santiago_de_Compostela.pdf#page=27 ).

La eutrofización es un problema también en muchas áreas costeras marinas, lo que viene provocando la muerte de los arrecifes coralinos.

Finalmente, la eutrofización tanto en fuentes de agua dulce como de agua salada, conlleva a la pérdida de los valores estéticos, ecológicos y económicos de los ecosistemas acuáticos.

Muchos ecosistemas acuáticos del mundo han estado sometidos a la eutrofización (América del Sur (3333. Aubriot L, Delbene L, Haakonsso S, Somma A, Hirsch F, Bonilla S. Evolución de la eutrofización en el Río Santa Lucía: influencia de la intensificación productiva y perspectivas. Innotec [Internet]. 2017;(14):7-16. Available from: https://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/6061/606164031001/606164031001.pdf -3535. Wiegand MC, Piedra JIG, Araújo JC de. Vulnerabilidade à eutrofização de dois lagos tropicais de climas úmido (Cuba) e semiárido (Brasil). Engenharia Sanitária e Ambiental [Internet]. 2016;21:415-24. Available from: https://www.scielo.br/j/esa/a/8NnDjzZqCmRGfDhqqjcGVXD/?format=html ), Cuba (3636. Marañón-Reyes AM, Pérez-Pompa NE, Dip-Gandarilla AM, González-Marañón A, Pérez-Silva RM, Ruiz-Estrella A. Evaluación temporal de la calidad de las aguas del río Los Guaos de Santiago de Cuba. Revista Cubana de Química [Internet]. 2014;26(2):115-25. Available from: http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2224-54212014000200004 -3838. Montalvo JF, López García DB, Perigó E, Blanco M. Nitrógeno y fósforo en las aguas del Golfo de Batabanó, Cuba, entre los años 1999 y 2000. 2017; Available from: https://aquadocs.org/handle/1834/12938 ), Europa (3939. Agency EE. Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophication in Europe’s Seas. Moving Towards a Healthy Marine Environment [Internet]. Publications Office of the European Union Luxembourg; 2019. Available from: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/nutrient-enrichment-and-eutrophication-in ), China (4040. Gao C, Zhang T. Eutrophication in a Chinese context: understanding various physical and socio-economic aspects. Ambio [Internet]. 2010;39(5):385-93. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-010-0040-5 ), Australia (4141. Davis JR, Koop K. Eutrophication in Australian rivers, reservoirs and estuaries-a southern hemisphere perspective on the science and its implications. Hydrobiologia [Internet]. 2006;559(1):23-76. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-005-4429-2 ), Africa del Sur (4242. Matthews MW, Bernard S. Eutrophication and cyanobacteria in South Africa’s standing water bodies: A view from space. South African journal of science [Internet]. 2015;111(5):1-8. Available from: https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC170780 ), India (4343. Arora SK. A Study of Eutrophication Phenomenon of a Lake of a Modern City of India. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) [Internet]. 2016;5(Issue 06):470-3. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.17577/IJERTV5IS060602 ), Estados Unidos (4444. Noe GB, Childers DL, Jones RD. Phosphorus biogeochemistry and the impact of phosphorus enrichment: Why is the Everglades so unique? Ecosystems [Internet]. 2001;4(7):603-24. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-001-0032-1 ,4545. Cramer S. An examination of levels of phosphorus and nitrogen in the chesapeake bay before and after the implementation of the chesapeake 2000 program. The Public Purpose [Internet]. 2014;12:65-77. Available from: https://observer.american.edu/spa/publicpurpose/upload/2014-public-purposechesapeake-sam-cramer.pdf ) (Tabla 2).

Tabla 2.  Ejemplos de ecosistemas acuáticos que se han encontrado afectados por la eutrofización.
Ecosistema
Río Santa Lucía, Uruguay
Lago Titikaka. Bolivia
Embalse La Juventud, Pinar del Río. Cuba; embalse Marenga, Ceará. Brasil
Río Los Guaos, Santiago de Cuba. Cuba
Río Ariguanabo, Artemisa. Cuba
Golfo de Batabanó, Mayabeque. Cuba
Mar Baltico, Mar Negro, Mar Mediterráneo, Atlántico Noreste. Europa
LagoTaihu, Lago Chaohu, Lago Dianchi, Río Yangtze. China
Estuario Peel-Harvey, Lago Mokoan, Río Darling. Australia
Reservorio Albert Falls, Reservorio Midmar, Reservorio Hartbeespoort, Lago costero Sibhayi, Lago costero Kuhlange entre otros. Sur Africa
Lago Sukhna. India
Everglades, Florida. Estados Unidos
Bahía Chesapeake, región Atlántico Medio, Estados Unidos

Además del N, el P es considerado como un componente clave que limita la calidad del agua dulce y causa la eutrofización en muchos lagos y en otras fuentes de agua (22. Lee GF. Role of phosphorus in eutrophication and diffuse source control. In: Phosphorus in Fresh Water and the Marine Environment [Internet]. Elsevier; 1973. p. 111-28. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080176970500134 ,4646. Dougherty WJ, Fleming NK, Cox JW, Chittleborough DJ. Phosphorus transfer in surface runoff from intensive pasture systems at various scales: A review. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2004;33(6):1973-88. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2004.1973 ,4747. Reid K, Schneider K, McConkey B. Components of phosphorus loss from agricultural landscapes, and how to incorporate them into risk assessment tools. Frontiers in Earth Science [Internet]. 2018;6:135. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2018.00135/full ). El incremento de la concentración de P en los cuerpos de agua se produce, entre otras causas, por la incorporación del nutriente por medio de la escorrentía que ocurren en suelos agrícolas (4848. Hart MR, Quin BF, Nguyen ML. Phosphorus runoff from agricultural land and direct fertilizer effects: A review. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2004;33(6):1954-72. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2004.1954 -5050. Hayes MA, Jesse A, Tabet B, Reef R, Keuskamp JA, Lovelock CE. The contrasting effects of nutrient enrichment on growth, biomass allocation and decomposition of plant tissue in coastal wetlands. Plant and Soil [Internet]. 2017;416(1):193-204. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11104-017-3206-0 ).

De lo anterior se desprende que en la medida que las aplicaciones de P resulten más elevadas innecesariamente, tanto más riesgo de enriquecimiento fosfórico del suelo se tiene y a la vez, más riesgo de participar en los procesos de eutrofización de las fuentes de aguas. De ahí, la importancia de conocer cuánto P se requiere en cada condición, para suministrar el nutriente que satisfaga las exigencias y no más.

Efectos en el suelo

 

Es reconocido que el P posee baja solubilidad y poca movilidad en los suelos y este solo se puede reponer mediante la fertilización (5151. McDowell RW, Sharpley AN. Phosphorus solubility and release kinetics as a function of soil test P concentration. Geoderma [Internet]. 2003;112(1-2):143-54. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016706102003014 ,5252. Takahashi S, Anwar MR. Wheat grain yield, phosphorus uptake and soil phosphorus fraction after 23 years of annual fertilizer application to an Andosol. Field Crops Research [Internet]. 2007;101(2):160-71. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378429006002097 ).

Cuando el fertilizante fosfórico se aplica y sus gránulos se disuelven con la humedad del suelo, se desarrollan reacciones entre el fosfato, los constituyentes del suelo y los compuestos no fosforados del fertilizante, las cuales remueven al nutriente de la fase líquida y lo convierten menos soluble (5353. Sample EC, Soper RJ, Racz GJ. Reactions of phosphate fertilizers in soils. The role of phosphorus in agriculture [Internet]. 1980;263-310. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1980.roleofphosphorus.c12 ). Este fenómeno se conoce desde hace más de siglo y medio y es conocido como fijación o retención de P. Entre los constituyentes del suelo que participan en la fijación o retención del P, son reconocidos el carbonato de Ca y los óxidos y óxidos hidratados de Fe y Al, sugiriéndose que el P precipita como fosfato de Ca, de Fe o de Al, o que se enlaza químicamente a estos cationes en la superficie de los minerales del suelo (5454. Wild A. The retention of phosphate by soil. A review. Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 1950;1(2):221-38. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1950.tb00734.x ).

La retención de P con los cationes mencionados se le denomina adsorción y se considera una reacción de intercambio entre los iones fosfatos y los iones hidroxilos asociados con el metal.

En la medida que aumenta la concentración de aniones fosfatos, se incrementa el intercambio con los aniones (OH)-, lo que hace aumentar la densidad de carga negativa del coloide y así, el pH de la solución (5555. Rajan SSS, Perrott KW, Saunders WMH. Identification of phosphate‐reactive sites of hydrous alumina from proton consumption during phosphate adsorption at constant pH values. Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 1974;25(4):438-47. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1974.tb01139.x ). Se ha demostrado que soluciones concentradas de P descomponen a la caolinita, propiciando la precipitación de un compuesto Al-P (5656. Kittrick JA, Jackson ML. Electron‐microscope observations of the reaction of phosphate with minerals, leading to a unified theory of phosphate fixation in soils. Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 1956;7(1):81-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1956.tb00865.x ). También se ha encontrado que la adsorción de P propicia la liberación de (SO4)2- y (SiO4)4- y una elevación del pH de la solución, indicativo del reemplazo de los aniones mencionados y de los grupos (OH)-; al incrementar la concentración de P, se produce un incremento abrupto en la liberación de (SiO4)4- y no así de (SO4)2-, lo que sugiere que los minerales arcillosos silicatados se desorganizan y se desplaza el [(SiO4)4-] (5757. Rājan SSS, Fox RL. Phosphate adsorption by soils: II. Reactions in tropical acid soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal [Internet]. 1975;39(5):846-51. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1975.03615995003900050019x ).

Se han presentado evidencias sobre la solubilización de la materia orgánica del suelo ocasionada por el fosfato mono y di amónico en los micro sitios de aplicación de las fuentes fosfóricas (5858. Bell LC, Black CA. Comparison of methods for identifying crystalline phosphates produced by interaction of orthophosphate fertilizers with soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal [Internet]. 1970;34(4):579-82. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1970.03615995003400040013x ).

El mecanismo propuesto para la explicación del comportamiento descrito antes, consiste en que el amonio de los fertilizantes remplaza a varios iones metálicos di y tri valentes de los complejos estables de la materia orgánica, haciendo de esta manera que los complejos formados resulten más solubles, propiciando el movimiento de la materia orgánica por el perfil del suelo (5959. Giordano PM, Sample EC, Mortvedt JJ. Effect of ammonium ortho-and pyrophosphate on Zn and P in soil solution. Soil Science [Internet]. 1971;111(2):101-6. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/citation/1971/02000/effect_of_ammonium_ortho__and_pyrophosphate _on_zn.4.aspx ).

Ante el exceso de P en el suelo, las plantas suelen manifestar suficiencia o exceso de P. Cuando esto ocurre, los contenidos de clorofila se reducen drásticamente debido a la manifestación de antagonismo con aniones como el NO3-, ya que la capacidad fotosintética y, por ende, la clorofila, están relacionadas directamente con el contenido de P y de N en la planta (6060. Singh SK, Reddy VR. Response of carbon assimilation and chlorophyll fluorescence to soybean leaf phosphorus across CO2: Alternative electron sink, nutrient efficiency and critical concentration. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology [Internet]. 2015;151:276-84. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.08.021 ).

Altas concentraciones de P en el suelo causan disminución en la absorción de Zn, bien por la formación de precipitados en el suelo o por procesos metabólicos en las plantas, que impiden la translocación del nutriente desde la raíz al resto de la planta (6161. Malavolta E. Avaliação do estado nutricional das plantas: princípios e aplicações/Eurípedes Malavolta, Godofredo Cesar Vitti, Sebastião Alberto de Oliveira.-2. ed., ver. e atual. Piracicaba: Potafos [Internet]. 1997; Available from: http://www.sidalc.net/cgibin/wxis.exe/?IsisScript=sibur.xis&method=post&formato=2&cantidad=1&expresion=mfn=003461 ).

Se ha demostrado que elevadas concentraciones de P en el suelo, hacen decrecer los niveles de colonización micorrízica (6262. Nagy R, Drissner D, Amrhein N, Jakobsen I, Bucher M. Mycorrhizal phosphate uptake pathway in tomato is phosphorus‐repressible and transcriptionally regulated. New Phytologist [Internet]. 2009;181(4):950-9. Available from: https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.14698137.2008.02721.x -6565. Balzergue C, Chabaud M, Barker DG, Bécard G, Rochange SF. High phosphate reduces host ability to develop arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis without affecting root calcium spiking responses to the fungus. Frontiers in plant science [Internet]. 2013;4:426. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2013.00426/full?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=Plant_Science-w48-2013 ), conducen a una supresión rápida del desarrollo del arbúsculo e inhibe temporalmente el crecimiento de la colonización radical (6666. Kobae Y, Ohmori Y, Saito C, Yano K, Ohtomo R, Fujiwara T. Phosphate treatment strongly inhibits new arbuscule development but not the maintenance of arbuscule in mycorrhizal rice roots. Plant Physiology [Internet]. 2016;171(1):566-79. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/171/1/566/6115000?login=true ).

Consideraciones generales

 

La necesidad del uso del P en la agricultura es innegable; sin embargo, ese uso debe ser racional, en correspondencia con las necesidades del suelo y de la planta.

Aplicaciones excesivas de P traen aparejadas situaciones adversas para el ambiente y para la producción agrícola.

En esta revisión se ha tratado de ilustrar de forma breve, el origen del enriquecimiento fosfórico del suelo y los daños ambientales que vienen asociados a este fenómeno, entre los que se han destacado la eutrofización y en el suelo, el incremento del pH, la disminución del contenido de materia orgánica, la dispersión y descomposición de la caolinita, el antagonismo con otros nutrientes y la inhibición del funcionamiento micorrízico.

A partir de lo expuesto, se desprende que constituye una obligación actuar con eficiencia en el uso de los fertilizantes en general y de los fosfóricos en particular, que, además de lo costoso que resultan, proceden de fuentes agotables de la naturaleza, ya muy deprimidas.

Se impone entonces, establecer el mejor método de análisis de P asimilable para cada condición, conocer el estado actual de los suelos en cuanto a su disponibilidad fosfórica, actualizar los requerimientos externos e internos de P que poseen los cultivos, establecer nuevas categorizaciones de la disponibilidad fosfórica de los suelos, utilizar el método del balance (aporte menos exportación) acompañado del análisis del suelo para poder ajustar con mayor precisión las dosis de P a aplicar en cada condición y finalmente, investigar en condiciones de campo los efectos que pudiera tener el enriquecimiento en P sobre la fertilidad del suelo.

Conclusiones

 
  • Aplicaciones de fertilizantes con fósforo en los agrosistemas en el tiempo que superan las exportaciones realizadas por el producto cosechado provoca el enriquecimiento del suelo con el nutriente.

  • El enriquecimiento del suelo con fósforo propicia que el nutriente participe en la eutrofización a partir de fenómenos erosivos.

  • Elevadas concentraciones de fósforo en el suelo incrementan el pH, disminuyen el contenido de materia orgánica, dispersan y descomponen la caolinita, provocan el antagonismo con otros nutrientes e inhiben el funcionamiento micorrízico.

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Cultivos Tropicales Vol. 43, No. 2, abril-junio 2022, ISSN: 1819-4087
 
Review

Enrichment of soil and its environmental impact

 

iDAdriano Cabrera-Rodríguez1Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Agrícolas (INCA), carretera San José-Tapaste, km 3½, Gaveta Postal 1, San José de las Lajas, Mayabeque, Cuba. CP 32700.*✉:naniadriano1950@gmail.com

iDRosmery Cruz-Camacho2Instituto de Investigaciones del Tabaco, carretera Tumbadero, km 8½, San Antonio de los Baños, Artemisa, Cuba.


1Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Agrícolas (INCA), carretera San José-Tapaste, km 3½, Gaveta Postal 1, San José de las Lajas, Mayabeque, Cuba. CP 32700.

2Instituto de Investigaciones del Tabaco, carretera Tumbadero, km 8½, San Antonio de los Baños, Artemisa, Cuba.

 

*Author for correspondence: naniadriano1950@gmail.com

Abstract

Phosphorus is one of the three primary macronutrients required for the growth of plants and animals. Its excessive application in agrosystems has generated soils enriched with P in many latitudes. The review's aim is to provide an abbreviated consideration of the meaning enriched with P and its environmental effects. When the balance between the applied P minus the exported is positive, the assimilable P increases. Therefore, an accumulation of P occurs over the years, producing the P-enrichment of soils. Phosphorus participates in the eutrophication of water bodies, which is exacerbated by P-enriched soils. In P-enriched soils, the pH increases, the content of organic matter decreases, the kaolinite is decomposed, nutrition is affected by antagonistic effects, and mycorrhizal function is inhibited.

Key words: 
phosphorus, phosphorus in soil, eutrophication, soil fertility

Introduction

 

P is one of the three primary macronutrients required for the growth of plants and animals; its application is necessary to maintain the production and profitability of crops and animal production (11. Sharpley AN, Daniel T, Sims T, Lemunyon J, Stevens R, Parry R. Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophication [Internet]. Second Edition. U.S: Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; 2003. Available from: https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/26693/PDF ).

Due to the phosphoric applications over years with mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizers, or both, sometimes irrationally (22. Lee GF. Role of phosphorus in eutrophication and diffuse source control. In: Phosphorus in Fresh Water and the Marine Environment [Internet]. Elsevier; 1973. p. 111-28. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080176970500134 ), high concentrations of P have been reached in many agricultural soils of different latitudes. Soils with very high concentrations of P have been found in Maryland, USA (33. Delorme TA, Angle JS, Coale FJ, Chaney RL. Phytoremediation of phosphorus-enriched soils. International Journal of phytoremediation [Internet]. 2000;2(2):173-81. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15226510008500038 ), in Holland (44. Reijneveld JA, Ehlert PAI, Termorshuizen AJ, Oenema O. Changes in the soil phosphorus status of agricultural land in the Netherlands during the 20th century. Soil use and management [Internet]. 2010;26(4):399-411. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.14752743.2010.00290.x ,55. Van Middelkoop JC, Van der Salm C, Ehlert PAI, De Boer IJM, Oenema O. Does balanced phosphorus fertilisation sustain high herbage yields and phosphorus contents in alternately grazed and mown pastures? Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems [Internet]. 2016;106(1):93-111. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10705-016-9791-0 ), in other countries of the European Union (66. Tóth G, Guicharnaud R-A, Tóth B, Hermann T. Phosphorus levels in croplands of the European Union with implications for P fertilizer use. European Journal of Agronomy [Internet]. 2014;55:42-52. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1161030113001950 ), in China (77. Li M, Hu Z, Zhu X, Zhou G. Risk of phosphorus leaching from phosphorus-enriched soils in the Dianchi catchment, Southwestern China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research [Internet]. 2015;22(11):8460-70. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11356-014-4008z ), which has been attributed to a more significant contribution of the nutrient than the removal made by the harvested product (11. Sharpley AN, Daniel T, Sims T, Lemunyon J, Stevens R, Parry R. Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophication [Internet]. Second Edition. U.S: Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; 2003. Available from: https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/26693/PDF ,88. Sharpley AN, Chapra SC, Wedepohl R, Sims JT, Daniel TC, Reddy KR. Managing agricultural phosphorus for protection of surface waters: Issues and options. 1994; Available from: https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/54 ,99. MacDonald GK, Bennett EM, Potter PA, Ramankutty N. Agronomic phosphorus imbalances across the world’s croplands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [Internet]. 2011;108(7):3086-91. Available from: https://www.pnas.org/content/108/7/3086.short ).

Based on the above, the presented review aims to make an abbreviated assessment of the meaning of soil enriched with P and its environmental effects.

Phosphoric enrichment of the soil

 

When in an agricultural area, the balance between the applied P minus that extracted by the harvested product (exported) is positive, the phosphoric availability of the soil (assimilable P) increases, and in turn, occurs an accumulation of P in the soil (residuality), which causes the phosphoric enrichment of the edaphic environment (1010. Daniel TC, Sharpley AN, Lemunyon JL. Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophication: A symposium overview. 1998; Available from: https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/20276 -1515. Hirte J, Richner W, Orth B, Liebisch F, Flisch R. Yield response to soil test phosphorus in Switzerland: Pedoclimatic drivers of critical concentrations for optimal crop yields using multilevel modelling. Science of The Total Environment [Internet]. 2021;755:143453. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720369849 ), over the years, that is, the soil becomes what is called a “P-enriched soil”. In these cases, the assimilable P exceeds the value considered optimal for the crops, and these do not respond to phosphoric fertilization. The availability of P for crops is determined, in general, from the results obtained by i) the soil analysis, ii) the analysis of the plant or an indicator tissue of the plant, iii) the balance between the P applied to and exported by the harvested product.

Soil analysis provides information on the availability of P for plants (1616. Cabrera A, Arzuaga J, Mojena M. Desbalance nutrimental del suelo y efecto sobre el rendimiento de tomate (Lycopersicon solanum L.) y pepino (Cucumis sativus L.) en condiciones de cultivo protegido. Cultivos Tropicales [Internet]. 2007;28(3):91-7. Available from: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/1932/193215844015.pdf -1919. Buczko U, van Laak M, Eichler-Löbermann B, Gans W, Merbach I, Panten K, et al. Re-evaluation of the yield response to phosphorus fertilization based on meta-analyses of long-term field experiments. Ambio [Internet]. 2018;47(1):50-61. Available from: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13280-017-0971-1.pdf ), while the analysis of an indicator tissue of the plant (generally leaves or part of them) provides information on the crop's nutritional status (33. Delorme TA, Angle JS, Coale FJ, Chaney RL. Phytoremediation of phosphorus-enriched soils. International Journal of phytoremediation [Internet]. 2000;2(2):173-81. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15226510008500038 ,2020. Gagnon B, Ziadi N. Papermill biosolids and alkaline residuals affect crop yield and soil properties over nine years of continuous application. Canadian Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 2012;92(6):917-30. Available from: https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/full/10.4141/cjss2012-026 ,2121. Almeida FM de, Noval WT la, Cabrera-Rodríguez JA, Arzuaga-Sánchez J. Crecimiento de plantas de papa (Solanum tuberosum L. cv Romano), en la provincia de Huambo, Angola, bajo dos densidades de plantación. Cultivos Tropicales [Internet]. 2018;39(3):31-40. Available from: http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?pid=S0258-59362018000300005&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt ). Both methods are valid, and the nutrient recommendation precision increases if both analyses are carried out. The balance method constitutes restoring what is exported from the field with the harvested product to the soil. For this, the chemical analysis must use the entire plant or parts (2222. Cañizares PJG. Manejo efectivo de la simbiosis micorrízica arbuscular vía inoculación y la fertilización mineral en pastos del género Brachiaria [Internet]. Editorial Universitaria; 2014. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.27770.95685 ,2323. Espinosa CA. Factibilidad y beneficios de la inoculación micorrízica arbuscular en la producción de boniato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) [Doctorado]. Universidad Agraria de la Habana, Mayabeque, Cuba; 2021. 100 p.).

The results obtained from the foliar or soil analysis are compared with already established categorizations to determine the plant's nutritional status or the soil's concentration of available P. In TABLE 1, it is exemplified with soil analysis using Bray and Kurtz No.1 (2424. Bray RH, Kurtz LT. Determination of total, organic, and available forms of phosphorus in soils. Soil science [Internet]. 1945;59(1):39-46. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1945/01000/Determination_of_Total,_Organic,_and_Available.6.aspx ), Olsen (2525. Olsen SR. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate [Internet]. US Department of Agriculture; 1954. Available from: https://books.google.es/books?hl=es&lr=&id=doaM88x5agC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=Estimation+of+available+phosphorus+in+soils+by+extraction+with+sodium+bicarbonate&ots=zZYnTFkPTC&sig=Y_pfYNmPPs86TM41Udnz_PrC4dg#v=onepage&q=Estimation%20of%20available%20phosphorus%20in%20soils%20by%20extraction%20with%20sodium%20bicarbonate&f=false , 2626. Reid K, Schneider K, Joosse P. Addressing imbalances in phosphorus accumulation in Canadian agricultural soils. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2019;48(5):1156-66. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2134/jeq2019.05.0205 ), Mehlich 3 (2626. Reid K, Schneider K, Joosse P. Addressing imbalances in phosphorus accumulation in Canadian agricultural soils. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2019;48(5):1156-66. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2134/jeq2019.05.0205 , 2727. Mehlich A. Mehlich 3 soil test extractant: A modification of Mehlich 2 extractant. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis [Internet]. 1984 [cited 8/12/2021];15(12):1409-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103628409367568 ) and Oniani (2828. Oficina Nacional de Normalización. NORMA CUBANA NC 52. Calidad del suelo. Análisis químico. Determinación de las formas móviles de fósforo y potasio. 1999.) methods for determining assimilable P.

Table 1.  Categorization of assimilable P from the soil determined by different methods.
Extractive solution Category P (mg kg-1)
0,03 M NH4F+0,025 M HCl pH 3,5 Bray and Kurtz No. 1
Very Low < 3
Low 3-7
Medium 7-20
Adequate > 20
0,5 M NaHCO3 pH 8,5 Olsen
Low < 5
Medium 5-10
Adequate > 10
Low < 10
Optimum 10-30
High 30-60
Very High > 60
0,2 M CH3COOH+ 0,25 M NH4NO3 + 0,015 M NH4F + 0,013 M HNO3 + 0,001 M EDTA Mehlich 3
Low < 15
Optimum 15-50
High 50-100
Very High > 100
Critical Level 30
0,05 M H2SO4 Oniani (mg 100 g -1 , P 2 O 5 )
Low < 15
Medium 15-30
High 30-45
Very High > 45

These categorizations in most cases are referred to as Low, Medium, High and Very High, also as Very Low, Low, Medium, High and Very High, or as Very Poor, Poor, Medium, Supplied, Very Supplied, among other modalities. In short, it is variable and dependent on the analytical technique, the researcher's considerations, the edaphoclimatic conditions, the plant species, and the management.

On many occasions in the case of soil analysis, other properties are considered to specify further the corresponding assimilable P category, such as pH, texture, organic matter content, and cationic exchange capacity, among others. In the case of plant analysis, the percentage of humidity of the analyzed sample and the age of the plant at the time of sampling are often considered.

The categories defined for the phosphoric fertility of the soil and the nutritional status of the plants are associated with the dose of fertilizers to be applied, from which the one that corresponds to each specific condition is selected. Based on the difference between the applied P and that exported by the harvest (balance method), it is intended to maintain a stable state of phosphoric fertility of the soil over time (balance equal to "zero"), provided that this fertility is considered appropriate (Medium or High Category). The balance method allows increasing phosphoric fertility in soils with insufficient assimilable P (Low or Very Low) by applying more P than is exported from the field ("positive balance") until it reaches an optimal level of assimilable P concentration. A "negative balance" is appropriate to decrease the concentration in P enriched soils (Very High); the nutrient application is eliminated until the soil analysis indicates that the phosphoric category has reached an adequate level. From that moment on, the strategy will be to maintain a balance equal to “zero”. Everything seems to indicate that there is a guarantee that in an agrosystem, the amount of P required for cultivation is applied to the soil; however, unfortunately, this has not been the case; various aspects have led to the phosphoric enrichment of the soil.

A widespread issue in agricultural practice is that the farmers are satisfied to apply more nutrient than recommended without also assessing the negative economic impact of this practice.

Applying chemical phosphoric fertilizer or some amendment with appreciable P content and organic fertilizer can also be mentioned. This behavior has been practiced for years in livestock areas, especially in developed countries (2929. Sharpley AN, McDowell RW, Kleinman PJ. Phosphorus loss from land to water: integrating agricultural and environmental management. Plant and soil [Internet]. 2001;237(2):287-307. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1013335814593 ), where livestock excreta are taken and incorporated into the fields. Still, it is almost always the same fields that receive this treatment since that the transfer of wastes from its source to areas far from it makes the production process too expensive.

Another issue that deserves to be mentioned is the usage of fertilizer formulas in agriculture. It is complex to guarantee the dose of some nutrients without exceeding the needs of another, and it is almost always P that is overestimated. Some formulas used in agriculture are:

10-10-10 17-17-17
12-12-12 21-7-14
15-15-15 9-13-17

Another way to supply P to the arable horizon of the soil is through the biogenic accumulation or the nutrient recycling, possible through the incorporation of roots, senescent leaves, branches, flowers, fruits, and harvest residues, which provide part of the P on the surface that the plant extracts from deepest horizons.

Environmental impact of the P enrichment soil

 

Effect on water sources: Eutrophication

 

Eutrophication is defined simply as the over-enrichment with nutrients of aquatic ecosystems that leads to the growth of algae and anoxic events (22. Lee GF. Role of phosphorus in eutrophication and diffuse source control. In: Phosphorus in Fresh Water and the Marine Environment [Internet]. Elsevier; 1973. p. 111-28. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080176970500134 ,3030. Carpenter SR. Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: bistability and soil phosphorus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [Internet]. 2005;102(29):10002-5. Available from: https://www.pnas.org/content/102/29/10002.short ) or as the process of organic enrichment or biological productivity of a body of water, accelerated by greater contributions of nutrients (3131. Sharpley A, Tunney H. Phosphorus research strategies to meet agricultural and environmental challenges of the 21st century. 2000; Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900010022x ).

In response to over-enrichment with nutrients, phytoplankton is modified towards an annoying proliferation of algae, which, when decomposed, produces a foul odor and causes a decrease in oxygen, causing the death of the fish (1111. Bennett EM, Carpenter SR, Caraco NF. Human impact on erodable phosphorus and eutrophication: a global perspective: increasing accumulation of phosphorus in soil threatens rivers, lakes, and coastal oceans with eutrophication. BioScience [Internet]. 2001;51(3):227-34. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/51/3/227/256199?login=true ).

Other problems associated with eutrophication are the presence of toxins in the water, loss of water transparency and a decrease in light reaching deep, the bad taste of drinking water, the disappearance of native plants, and loss of biodiversity (3232. Fernández-Marcos ML. Contaminación por fósforo procedente de la fertilización orgánica de suelos agrícolas. Gestión de residuos orgánicos de uso agrícola, no. May [Internet]. 2011;25-31. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lugo-Ibader/publication/338544738_Lopez_Mosquera_ME_Sainz_Oses_MJ_Coords_2011_Guia_de_residuos_organicos_de_uso_agricola_Santiago_de_Compostela_Servizo_de_Publicacions_Universidade_de_Santiago_de_Compostela/links/5e1b81ae4585159aa4cb51ec/Lopez-Mosquera-ME-Sainz-Oses-MJ-Coords-2011_Guia_de_residuos_organicos_de_uso_agricola_Santiago_de_Compostela_Servizo_de_Publicacions_Universidade_de_Santiago_de_Compostela.pdf#page=27 ).

Eutrophication is also a problem in many coastal marine areas, causing the death of coral reefs.

Finally, eutrophication in both fresh and saltwater sources leads to the loss of aquatic ecosystems' aesthetic, ecological and economic values.

Many aquatic ecosystems in the world have been subjected to eutrophication (South America (3333. Aubriot L, Delbene L, Haakonsso S, Somma A, Hirsch F, Bonilla S. Evolución de la eutrofización en el Río Santa Lucía: influencia de la intensificación productiva y perspectivas. Innotec [Internet]. 2017;(14):7-16. Available from: https://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/6061/606164031001/606164031001.pdf -3535. Wiegand MC, Piedra JIG, Araújo JC de. Vulnerabilidade à eutrofização de dois lagos tropicais de climas úmido (Cuba) e semiárido (Brasil). Engenharia Sanitária e Ambiental [Internet]. 2016;21:415-24. Available from: https://www.scielo.br/j/esa/a/8NnDjzZqCmRGfDhqqjcGVXD/?format=html ), Cuba (3636. Marañón-Reyes AM, Pérez-Pompa NE, Dip-Gandarilla AM, González-Marañón A, Pérez-Silva RM, Ruiz-Estrella A. Evaluación temporal de la calidad de las aguas del río Los Guaos de Santiago de Cuba. Revista Cubana de Química [Internet]. 2014;26(2):115-25. Available from: http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2224-54212014000200004 -3838. Montalvo JF, López García DB, Perigó E, Blanco M. Nitrógeno y fósforo en las aguas del Golfo de Batabanó, Cuba, entre los años 1999 y 2000. 2017; Available from: https://aquadocs.org/handle/1834/12938 ), Europe (3939. Agency EE. Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophication in Europe’s Seas. Moving Towards a Healthy Marine Environment [Internet]. Publications Office of the European Union Luxembourg; 2019. Available from: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/nutrient-enrichment-and-eutrophication-in ), China (4040. Gao C, Zhang T. Eutrophication in a Chinese context: understanding various physical and socio-economic aspects. Ambio [Internet]. 2010;39(5):385-93. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-010-0040-5 ), Australia (4141. Davis JR, Koop K. Eutrophication in Australian rivers, reservoirs and estuaries-a southern hemisphere perspective on the science and its implications. Hydrobiologia [Internet]. 2006;559(1):23-76. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-005-4429-2 ), South Africa (4242. Matthews MW, Bernard S. Eutrophication and cyanobacteria in South Africa’s standing water bodies: A view from space. South African journal of science [Internet]. 2015;111(5):1-8. Available from: https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC170780 ), India (4343. Arora SK. A Study of Eutrophication Phenomenon of a Lake of a Modern City of India. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) [Internet]. 2016;5(Issue 06):470-3. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.17577/IJERTV5IS060602 ), United States (4444. Noe GB, Childers DL, Jones RD. Phosphorus biogeochemistry and the impact of phosphorus enrichment: Why is the Everglades so unique? Ecosystems [Internet]. 2001;4(7):603-24. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-001-0032-1 -4545. Cramer S. An examination of levels of phosphorus and nitrogen in the chesapeake bay before and after the implementation of the chesapeake 2000 program. The Public Purpose [Internet]. 2014;12:65-77. Available from: https://observer.american.edu/spa/publicpurpose/upload/2014-public-purposechesapeake-sam-cramer.pdf ) (Table 2).

Table 2.  Examples of aquatic ecosystems affected by eutrophication.
Ecosystem
Santa Lucía River, Uruguay
Titikaka Lake. Bolivia
Dam La Juventud, Pinar del Río. Cuba; dam Marenga, Ceará. Brazil
Los Guaos River, Santiago de Cuba. Cuba
Ariguanabo River, Artemisa. Cuba
Gulf of Batabanó, Mayabeque. Cuba
Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Northeast Atlantic. Europe
Taihu Lake, Chaohu Lake, Dianchi Lake, Yangtze River. China
Estuary Peel-Harvey, Mokoan Lake, Darling River. Australia
Reservoir Albert Falls, Reservorio Midmar, Reservoir Hartbeespoort, Coastal Lake Sibhayi, Coastal Lake Kuhlange among others. South Africa
Sukhna Lake. India
Everglades, Florida. United States
Chesapeake Bay, Mid-Atlantic region, United States

In addition to N, P is considered a critical component that limits the freshwater quality and causes eutrophication in many lakes and other water sources (22. Lee GF. Role of phosphorus in eutrophication and diffuse source control. In: Phosphorus in Fresh Water and the Marine Environment [Internet]. Elsevier; 1973. p. 111-28. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080176970500134 ,4646. Dougherty WJ, Fleming NK, Cox JW, Chittleborough DJ. Phosphorus transfer in surface runoff from intensive pasture systems at various scales: A review. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2004;33(6):1973-88. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2004.1973 ,4747. Reid K, Schneider K, McConkey B. Components of phosphorus loss from agricultural landscapes, and how to incorporate them into risk assessment tools. Frontiers in Earth Science [Internet]. 2018;6:135. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2018.00135/full ). The increase in the concentration of P in water bodies is produced, among other causes, by incorporating the nutrient through runoff that occurs in agricultural soils (4848. Hart MR, Quin BF, Nguyen ML. Phosphorus runoff from agricultural land and direct fertilizer effects: A review. Journal of environmental quality [Internet]. 2004;33(6):1954-72. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2004.1954 -5050. Hayes MA, Jesse A, Tabet B, Reef R, Keuskamp JA, Lovelock CE. The contrasting effects of nutrient enrichment on growth, biomass allocation and decomposition of plant tissue in coastal wetlands. Plant and Soil [Internet]. 2017;416(1):193-204. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11104-017-3206-0 ).

From the above, it can be deduced that to the extent that the applications of P are unnecessarily higher, the greater the risk of P enrichment soil and, at the same time, the greater the risk of participating in the eutrophication processes of the water sources. Hence, knowing how much P is required in each condition is vital to supply the nutrient that meets the requirements and no more.

Effects on the soil

 

It is recognized that P has low solubility and low mobility in soils, and it can only be replaced by fertilization (5151. McDowell RW, Sharpley AN. Phosphorus solubility and release kinetics as a function of soil test P concentration. Geoderma [Internet]. 2003;112(1-2):143-54. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016706102003014 ,5252. Takahashi S, Anwar MR. Wheat grain yield, phosphorus uptake and soil phosphorus fraction after 23 years of annual fertilizer application to an Andosol. Field Crops Research [Internet]. 2007;101(2):160-71. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378429006002097 ). When phosphoric fertilizer is applied and its granules dissolve with soil moisture, reactions develop between phosphate, soil constituents, and non-phosphorous compounds in the fertilizer, which remove the nutrient from the liquid phase and make it less soluble (5353. Sample EC, Soper RJ, Racz GJ. Reactions of phosphate fertilizers in soils. The role of phosphorus in agriculture [Internet]. 1980;263-310. Available from: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1980.roleofphosphorus.c12 ). This phenomenon has been known for over a century and a half and is known as fixation or retention of P. Calcium carbonate and hydrated oxides and oxides of Fe and Al are among the soil constituents that participate in the fixation or retention of P, suggesting that P precipitates as Ca, Fe, or Al phosphate, or that it binds chemically to these cations on the surface of soil minerals (5454. Wild A. The retention of phosphate by soil. A review. Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 1950;1(2):221-38. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1950.tb00734.x ). The retention of P with the mentioned cations is called adsorption and is considered an exchange reaction between the phosphate ions and the hydroxyl ions associated with the metal.

As the concentration of phosphate anions rises, the exchange with the anions (OH)- increases, which elevates the density of the negative charge of the colloid and thus, the pH of the solution (5555. Rajan SSS, Perrott KW, Saunders WMH. Identification of phosphate‐reactive sites of hydrous alumina from proton consumption during phosphate adsorption at constant pH values. Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 1974;25(4):438-47. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1974.tb01139.x ).

Concentrated solutions of P have been shown to decompose kaolinite, leading to the precipitation of an Al-P compound (5656. Kittrick JA, Jackson ML. Electron‐microscope observations of the reaction of phosphate with minerals, leading to a unified theory of phosphate fixation in soils. Journal of Soil Science [Internet]. 1956;7(1):81-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1956.tb00865.x ). It has also been found that the adsorption of P promotes the release of (SO4)2- and (SiO4)4- and pH solution elevation, indicative of the replacement of the mentioned anions and (OH)- groups. By increasing the concentration of P, there is an abrupt increase in the release of (SiO4)4- and not (SO4)2-, which suggests that the silicate clay minerals are disorganized and the [(SiO4)4-] is displaced (5757. Rājan SSS, Fox RL. Phosphate adsorption by soils: II. Reactions in tropical acid soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal [Internet]. 1975;39(5):846-51. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1975.03615995003900050019x ).

Evidence has been presented on the solubilization of soil organic matter caused by mono and di ammonium phosphate in the microsites of application of phosphoric sources (5858. Bell LC, Black CA. Comparison of methods for identifying crystalline phosphates produced by interaction of orthophosphate fertilizers with soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal [Internet]. 1970;34(4):579-82. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1970.03615995003400040013x ).

The mechanism proposed for the explanation of the behavior described above consists in that the ammonium of the fertilizers replaces several di and trivalent metal ions of the stable complexes of organic matter, thus making the formed complexes more soluble, favoring the movement of organic matter through the soil profile (5959. Giordano PM, Sample EC, Mortvedt JJ. Effect of ammonium ortho-and pyrophosphate on Zn and P in soil solution. Soil Science [Internet]. 1971;111(2):101-6. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/citation/1971/02000/effect_of_ammonium_ortho__and_pyrophosphate _on_zn.4.aspx ). Faced with excess P in the soil, plants tend to show sufficient or excess P. When this occurs, the chlorophyll contents are drastically reduced due to the manifestation of antagonism with anions such as NO3-, since the photosynthetic capacity and, therefore, chlorophyll is directly related to the content of P and N in the plant (6060. Singh SK, Reddy VR. Response of carbon assimilation and chlorophyll fluorescence to soybean leaf phosphorus across CO2: Alternative electron sink, nutrient efficiency and critical concentration. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology [Internet]. 2015;151:276-84. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.08.021 ).

High concentrations of P in the soil cause a decrease in the absorption of Zn, either by the formation of precipitates in the soil or by metabolic processes in plants, which prevent the translocation of the nutrient from the root to the rest of the plant (6161. Malavolta E. Avaliação do estado nutricional das plantas: princípios e aplicações/Eurípedes Malavolta, Godofredo Cesar Vitti, Sebastião Alberto de Oliveira.-2. ed., ver. e atual. Piracicaba: Potafos [Internet]. 1997; Available from: http://www.sidalc.net/cgibin/wxis.exe/?IsisScript=sibur.xis&method=post&formato=2&cantidad=1&expresion=mfn=003461 ).

It has been shown that high concentrations of P in the soil decrease the levels of mycorrhizal colonization (6262. Nagy R, Drissner D, Amrhein N, Jakobsen I, Bucher M. Mycorrhizal phosphate uptake pathway in tomato is phosphorus‐repressible and transcriptionally regulated. New Phytologist [Internet]. 2009;181(4):950-9. Available from: https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.14698137.2008.02721.x -6565. Balzergue C, Chabaud M, Barker DG, Bécard G, Rochange SF. High phosphate reduces host ability to develop arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis without affecting root calcium spiking responses to the fungus. Frontiers in plant science [Internet]. 2013;4:426. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2013.00426/full?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=Plant_Science-w48-2013 ), lead to rapid suppression of the arbuscular development, and temporarily inhibit the growth of root colonization (6666. Kobae Y, Ohmori Y, Saito C, Yano K, Ohtomo R, Fujiwara T. Phosphate treatment strongly inhibits new arbuscule development but not the maintenance of arbuscule in mycorrhizal rice roots. Plant Physiology [Internet]. 2016;171(1):566-79. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/171/1/566/6115000?login=true ).

General considerations

 

The need for P in agriculture is undeniable; however, its use must be rational, in correspondence with soil and plant needs.

Excessive applications of P bring about adverse situations for the environment and agricultural production.

This review has attempted to briefly illustrate the origin of soil phosphorization and its environmental impact. Eutrophication, the increase in soil's pH, the decrease in organic matter content, dispersion and decomposition of kaolinite, antagonism with other nutrients, and inhibition of mycorrhizal function are among the adverse effects.

From the preceding, it follows that it is an obligation to act efficiently in the use of fertilizers in general and phosphoric ones in particular, which, in addition to being expensive, come from exhaustible sources of nature, already very depressed.

Therefore, it is necessary to establish the best assimilable P analysis method for each condition, know the current state of the soils in terms of their phosphoric availability, update the external and internal P requirements of the crops, establish new categorizations of soil's phosphoric availability, use the balance method (input minus export) accompanied by soil analysis to be able to more precisely adjust the doses of P to apply in each condition and finally, investigate in field conditions the effects that P enrichment could have on soil fertility.

Conclusions

 
  • Applications of phosphorus fertilizers in agrosystems in time that exceed the exports made by the harvested product cause the enrichment of the soil with the nutrient.

  • The enrichment of the soil with phosphorus facilitates the nutrient to participate in eutrophication from erosive phenomena.

  • High concentrations of phosphorus in the soil increase the pH, decrease organic matter content, disperse and decompose kaolinite, cause antagonism with other nutrients, and inhibit mycorrhizal function.